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CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Creating an Enemy
3. Training to Kill
4. Simulators and Video Games
5. The Psychological Impact of War: PTSD
6. Get Involved
7. About the Bulletin

 
INTRODUCTION
"Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that we have to erect the ramparts of peace." -- UNESCO charter

Most moral, religious, and societal rules dictate that killing another human being is wrong. The terrorists in the WTC attacks, serial killers, and even soldiers in a war that we don't agree with are condemned. It may seem impossible to imagine that we ourselves could ever kill another human being, and as a result, it may seem as though those who do are reprehensible, awful, insane, inhuman, or evil.

Yet we (as a society and as individuals) often make a huge exception to the "thou shalt not kill" rule in the case of war. Most societies train a portion of the population to become professional killers in order to "defend" the country. These members of the military grow up in the same society as the rest of us. They are mostly not mentally ill or unstable, at least prior to combat. They are not necessarily more aggressive or more dangerous than any other person you meet in everyday life. So how are they trained to kill? What are the psychological mechanisms that make this acceptable in their minds? What are the psychological effects of engaging in the institutionalized violence of a war? And how does society as a whole determine which enemy can justly be killed in the first place?

In this issue, we will explore how certain social situations make otherwise unthinkable actions possible and even likely. We will demonstrate that belonging to a group, whether that group is an armed force, a nation, or a neighborhood club, can significantly alter us as individuals. And we will demonstrate that it is the very rare individual indeed who is able to resist the psychological mechanisms that can make good people do evil things.

Note: Please keep in mind that while examples from the US military are used throughout, the psychological theories described here can be are universal.

 
CREATING AN ENEMY
Perhaps one of the most essential aspects of the process of training people to kill is the creation of an enemy. This usually means designating another group of people as being bad or evil, or less than human. According to sociologists and social psychologists, the creation of an enemy is a fairly common part of social interaction, especially in terms of identification with a group.

Groupthink is the particular social dynamic which occurs in groups. Some of the characteristics of groupthink include a belief in the inherent morality (i.e. "goodness") of one's own group, and stereotyping of outsiders.
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=99

In-groups, the groups to which we belong and with which we identify, are generally perceived as good. Out-groups are generally perceived as more evil and less human. This dehumanization is the basis of a war situation; if the other group of people is perceived as less than human, then it becomes far more psychologically possible to kill them.
http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/problem/outgrp.htm

This fascinating article provides insight into the completely arbitrary way that stereotypes are made about other groups, and how rivalry and discord can arise even between former friends when they begin to identify with different groups. While reading, keep in mind that the military is particularly good at creating a strong group identity through uniforms and other methods of minimizing individuality; military personnel identify strongly with their brothers-in-arms.
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=100

This article on scapegoating provides more insight into why we designate some groups as bad, evil, or the enemy -- and why this brings us together. "Scapegoating relies on the creation of a dichotomy between 'us' and 'them,' pitting the familiar 'in group' against the alien 'out group.' By scapegoating our fabricated enemy 'other' we not only create ourselves as heroes, but also define and enhance group cohesion, the identity of the 'us.' In times when the core identity of a society is imperiled--when we have trouble figuring out who 'we' are--the demand for enemy scapegoats is increased. The scapegoat thus serves a dual purpose by both representing the evil 'them' and simultaneously illuminating, solidifying, and sanctifying the good 'us.' "
http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/scapegoating-02.htm

In "The Psychology of Evil," Philip Zimbardo explains why the line between good and evil is not as solid as we may think. Two famous experiments have proven that given the right circumstances, ordinary people will do evil things.
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=101

 
TRAINING TO KILL
This is the US Army's description of basic training. For nine weeks, new recruits engage in frequent physical exercise, learn that their gun is their best friend, and focus on developing aspects of the military "character" that include loyalty and duty.
http://www.goarmy.com/tour/basic.htm

According to Lt. Col. Dave Grossman, U.S. Army (Ret.) a technique called "operant conditioning" is used by the US military to overcome the human aversion to killing. For example, bull's-eye targets have been replaced by human-shaped targets that fall when hit, helping recruits to feel comfortable when shooting at people. In combat situations, soldiers act reflexively, rather than stopping to think; such techniques have increased the rate of fire by military personnel from 55% in Korea to about 95% in Vietnam.
http://www.killology.com/art_onkilling_overcoming.htm

This brief summary of several thinkers on the subject of human violence explains that humans actually have a natural aversion to killing, and concludes by outlining Lt. Col. Grossman's model of the circumstances in which a human being will kill another human being. They include:

• A repected authority figure demands killing and is close by;

• "Group absolution:" respected peers demand or accept the killing;

• The killer is predisposed to the act, based on conditioning or recent experience. (For example, he has been trained to kill, and/or has recently seen friends killed by the enemy.)

• The victim is at a physical or emotional distance, and is seen as an immoral or nonhuman "other."

• A cost-benefit analysis dictates the payoff to killing the victim outweighs the risk or stress of the act.

The war in Afghanistan has demonstrated that technology is making it safer and easier for military personnel to wage war. The ability to wage war from a safe distance may also be making it psychologically easier to kill. The military chaplain who wrote this article points out that ". . . as war becomes safer and easier, as soldiers are removed from the horrors of war and see the enemy not as humans but as blips on a screen, there is a very real danger of losing the deterrent that such horrors provide."
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=102

Technology is dominating US methods of warfare, meaning that fewer soldiers actually have to engage in close combat, or even see the people that they are killing. From the article: "Is American policy drifting toward an approach that could be labeled 'willing to kill but not to die?' By bombing from 15,000 feet and beyond, and by insisting on a near zero-casualty policy, Americans have signaled a willingness to take life as long as force can be used without fear of retribution."
http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/lib_pov_rosenthal.html

Military psychology is a field of psychology completely devoted to helping choose, train, assess, and treat members of the military, meaning that military psychologists are the ones at least partly responsible for finding ways to prepare soldiers for killing.
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div19intro.html

 
SIMULATORS AND VIDEO GAMES
A new movie-like simulator is now being used to assist in training military personnel in the US. This is controversial because it seems to prove that children who watch violent media may also become conditioned to accept and perpetrate violence.
http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/2000/10/02/fp2s2-csm.shtml

This article features a more detailed description of the same simulator mentioned above, as well as the military-produced video game Real War, which was completed before Sept. 11 but centers around a terrorist cell attacking the US. New recruits train by participating in the virtual "war on terrorism" that guides the plot of the game.
http://www.cnn.com/2001/TECH/ptech/11/22/war.games/?related

The popular internet game Doom was modified by the US Marines to help train their troops, although military superiors insist that games can never replace field training.
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.04/ff_doom_pr.html

In Britain the popular game Half-Life was similarly modified. When tested on real soldiers, Major Bruce Pennell of the Royal Logistic Corps noted: "The soldiers became psychologically immersed in what they were doing; there was no laughing and they behaved as if on a real operation."
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=103

A new video game, based on the existing Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Rogue Spear, will be used by the US military to train troops to fight terrorists in urban terrain.
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=104

 
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF WAR: PTSD
Participating in combat often has dehibilitating psychological effects. These effects are the result of being traumatized by combat experiences. This brochure provides an excellent general introduction to trauma and the specific psychological disorder that it causes, known as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
http://www.ncptsd.org/facts/general/fs_effects.html

This fact sheet on PTSD gives a more detailed explanation of the disorder, including how it is assessed and treated.
http://www.ncptsd.org/facts/general/fs_what_is_ptsd.html

Peacekeepers suffer as well as soldiers--as many as 20% of the Canadian peacekeepers have PTSD. Gen. Romeo Dallaire, the UN Commander in Rwanda, left the country shaken and suicidal. He tells some of his story. Includes interviews and other first person accounts.
http://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/ptsd/wounds.html

The US military is starting to integrate more information about combat stress into training. However, the main goal is keeping soldiers on the battlefield, and getting them back onto the battlefield if they suffer from PTSD while in action. It also focuses less on training soldiers to get help from trained professionals than from military superiors and "buddies."
http://peace.moveon.org/r2.php3?r=105

A study of American Vietnam veterans indicates that members of the military from minority groups, such as Native Americans, tend to suffer from higher rates of PTSD than Caucasian military personnel.
http://www.ncptsd.org/facts/veterans/fs_native_vets.html

Soldiers are not the only ones who are traumatized by war; civilians who are not directly engaged in fighting are also at risk. This article briefly outlines the causes and effects of exposure to prolonged combat stress.
http://www.ncptsd.org/facts/disasters/fs_civilians.html

Lt. Col. Dave Grossman believes that returning veterans are less likely to engage in violent acts than civilians, despite the psychological effects of war, because of the discipline learned while in service. However, he also cautions that "with the advent of interactive 'point-and-shoot' arcade and video games there is significant concern that society is aping military conditioning, but without the vital safeguard of discipline. There is strong evidence to indicate that the indiscriminate civilian application of combat conditioning techniques as entertainment may be a key factor in worldwide, skyrocketing violent crime rates, including a sevenfold increase in per capita aggravated assaults in America since 1956."

 
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